Technology has flattened organizations before, but with only temporary effect. The computerization of the office in the 1980s and ‘90s ushered in “a huge wave of delayering of middle managers,” Spicer says. But that winnowing reversed itself as companies grew more complex and sought to serve more stakeholders. That trend lasted, he says: “If you look at where we are now, from the 1980s to today, there’s actually been an explosion of middle management.”
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